History of California

California has more people than any other state of the United States. Many visitors and new residents are attracted by California's outdoor way of life. The warm, dry climate of southern California permits outdoor recreation almost all the year around.

More goods are manufactured in California than in any other state. Factories in southern and central California produce aerospace and electronic equipment. Fields of oil and natural gas yield thousands of barrels of fuel a day and help make California a leading mining state.

California also ranks first among the states in agriculture. A vast farming region, the Central Valley, extends about 450 miles (720 kilometers) through the center of the state. The valley is the leading region in the United States for growing fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Such field crops as cotton, rice, and wheat also grow there. Some parts of the Central Valley are used for raising cattle and sheep.

California has 4 of the nation's 20 largest cities--Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco. Los Angeles, the largest city in California, lies in the southern part of the state between the Pacific Ocean and a group of small mountain ranges. San Diego overlooks a beautiful bay just north of the Mexican border. San Jose lies at the southern end of San Francisco Bay. San Francisco lies at the tip of a hilly peninsula that borders San Francisco Bay on the central coast. Sacramento, another large city, is the state capital.

Research laboratories, computer companies, and engineering firms cluster around universities in and near the largest cities. They take advantage of the "brain power" of scientists and engineers from the universities.

California covers a larger area than any other state except Alaska and Texas. The high Sierra Nevada rises near the eastern border. Rocky cliffs and sandy beaches line the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west. Thick forests of Douglas-firs and redwoods cover the Coast Ranges and the Klamath Mountains in the northwest. Barren deserts stretch across the southeast.

The state was named by Spanish explorers who first sailed along the coast in the 1500's. They called the land California, probably after the name of a treasure island in a popular Spanish tale. California is known as the Golden State. Its gold fields attracted thousands of miners, known as the ""Forty-Niners,'' during the gold rush of 1849. The nickname also suggests the brilliant sunshine, and the golden grass on California pastures in the autumn.

CALIFORNIA/People

Population. The 1990 United States census reported that California had 29,839,250 people. The population had increased 26 percent over the 1980 figure, 23,667,826. According to the 1990 census, California ranks first in population among the 50 states.

In 1960, California ranked second to New York in population. Unofficial figures indicated that California passed New York early in 1963. By 1990, California had almost 12 million more people than New York.

About 95 percent of the people of California live in metropolitan statistical areas (see METROPOLITAN AREA). About a third of California's population lives in the largest metropolitan area--Los Angeles-Long Beach.

Los Angeles is the largest city, both in area and in population. It covers 465 square miles (1,204 square kilometers). The United States Bureau of the Census reported that Los Angeles had a population of about 31/2 million in 1990.

California has nine other cities of over 250,000. Only two--Fresno and Sacramento--are inland. The others lie on or near the Pacific Coast. Oakland, San Francisco, and San Jose are in the San Francisco Bay area. Anaheim, Long Beach, and Santa Ana are part of the Los Angeles population cluster. San Diego is on the coast near the Mexican border. In addition to these cities, California has 34 other cities with more than 100,000 people.

About 77 of every 100 Californians were born in the United States. Mexicans make up the largest group of Californians who were born in another country. More people of Mexican ancestry live in the Los Angeles area than in any other urban area in the world outside Mexico. Many Californians of Chinese and Japanese ancestry live in communities of their own in Los Angeles and San Francisco. Chinatown in San Francisco has a Chinese population of about 30,000 and ranks as one of the largest Chinese communities outside Asia. California also has about 242,000 American Indians--more than any other state except Oklahoma.

Schools. In the late 1700's and early 1800's, Franciscan friars taught farming, weaving, and other crafts to the Indians of California. A few small schools were established in the region. But most children of the early settlers received instruction from private teachers.

The first tax-supported school in California opened in San Francisco in 1850. It was financed by the city. In 1849, the California Constitution provided for a public school system. The state Legislature passed a tax law in 1852 to support public schools. But the schools did not become free to all children until 1867. At that time, the school system did not include high schools. The state's first public high school opened in 1856 in San Francisco. In 1910, California established in Fresno the first tax supported junior college in the United States.

An 11-member state Board of Education develops policies for California's elementary and secondary school system. Nine members of the board are appointed by the governor, subject to the approval of the state Senate. Members serve four-year terms, except for one student representative, who serves one year. The state Department of Education provides assistance to the more than 1,000 local school districts and county offices of education, and it divides state and federal funds among them. An elected superintendent of public instruction heads the department.

California law requires children from age 6 through 15 to attend school. Students who pass a special examination are allowed to leave school or to seek admission to a California community college at age 16. Children who have not completed high school or who have not passed the special examination must go to school at least part time until the age of 18. For the number of students and teachers in California, see EDUCATION (table).

California has the largest system of state colleges and universities in the United States. The California State University system, with more than 20 colleges and universities and an enrollment of more than 300,000 students, is the largest system in the United States. Nine campuses of the University of California provide higher education for more than 165,000 students. A master plan, which was approved by the Legislature in 1960, provides for the orderly expansion of the system of state colleges and universities. California also has an outstanding system of community colleges.

Libraries. California's outstanding public library system was founded in 1909. Today, public libraries exist throughout the state. In addition, all types of libraries in California have formal and informal cooperative arrangements between them for sharing resources. The University of California at Berkeley has the largest university library in the state. It includes the Bancroft Library collections of rare materials on the American West. The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace at Stanford University has books and documents on world affairs of the 1900's.

Museums. The M. H. de Young Memorial Museum in San Francisco has art objects from many lands. The exhibits include famous paintings by European artists and items made by early American Indians. The California Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco displays antique furniture, paintings, porcelain, sculpture, and tapestries. The Stanford University Museum of Art and Art Gallery has archaeological objects from ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.

The Huntington Library and Art Gallery in San Marino exhibits British paintings and French furniture and tapestries of the 1700's. The California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento is the largest of its kind in the world. The Southwest Museum in Los Angeles displays items of American Indians who lived in the Southwest. The Los Angeles County Museum of Art has outstanding collections of paintings and other works. The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County owns perhaps the best collection of Pleistocene ice age fossils in the world. The fossils owned by the museum came from the La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles (see LA BREA TAR PITS).

CALIFORNIA/Visitor's guide

Many people visit California to see such natural wonders as redwood groves and volcanic cones. California also has famous golf courses, resorts, beaches, ski areas, and many other recreational facilities.

California's largest cities, Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Francisco, play host to millions of visitors every year. For information on things to see and do in these cities, see LOS ANGELES; SAN DIEGO; SAN FRANCISCO.

California's most famous annual event is the Tournament of Roses, held in Pasadena on New Year's Day or January 2. Colorful floats, decorated with thousands of flowers, compete for prizes in the Tournament of Roses Parade. A beauty contest and the Rose Bowl football game are also part of the festivities.

CALIFORNIA/Land and climate

California is larger than any other state except Alaska and Texas. San Bernardino County, California's largest county, covers more than 20,000 square miles (51,800 square kilometers). It is one of the largest counties in area in the United States.

Land regions. California has eight main land regions:

(1) the Klamath Mountains,
(2) the Coast Ranges,
(3) the Central Valley,
(4) the Sierra Nevada,
(5) the Cascade Mountains,
(6) the Basin and Range Region,
(7) the Los Angeles Ranges, and
(8) the San Diego Ranges.

The Klamath Mountains include several small, forest-covered ranges in the northwestern corner of California. These ranges are higher and steeper than the coastal mountains to the south. Many peaks are from 6,000 to 8,000 feet (1,800 to 2,400 meters) high. Deep canyons break up the ranges.

The Coast Ranges extend southward along the Pacific Coast from the Klamath Mountains to Santa Barbara County. Individual sections of this mountain chain have names of their own. These include the Diablo, Santa Cruz, and Santa Lucia ranges. Livestock ranches, orchards, vineyards, and truck gardens dot the beautiful valleys that separate the ranges. These valleys include the Napa Valley north of San Francisco, and the Santa Clara and Salinas valleys to the south. California's famous redwood trees grow on the Coast Ranges.

An important feature of the region is the San Andreas Fault. A fault is a break in the earth's rocky outer shell, along which movements of the rock have taken place. The San Andreas Fault enters northern California from the Pacific Ocean near Point Arena and extends southeastward into southern California. Movements of the earth's crust along this fault cause earthquakes. See SAN ANDREAS FAULT.

The Central Valley, sometimes called the Great Valley, lies between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada. It has two major river systems--the Sacramento in the north and the San Joaquin in the south. The valley extends about 450 miles (720 kilometers) from northwest to southeast. Much of it is level, and looks like a broad, open plain. This fertile valley forms the largest and most important farming area west of the Rocky Mountains. It has three-fifths of California's farmland, and produces a great variety of crops.

The Sierra Nevada, located east of the Central Valley, forms a massive rock wall more than 400 miles (640 kilometers) long and about 40 to 70 miles (64 to 110 kilometers) wide. Several peaks of the Sierra Nevada rise more than 14,000 feet (4,270 meters). These peaks include Mount Whitney (14,495 feet, or 4,418 meters), the highest point in the United States south of Alaska. Rushing mountain rivers have cut deep canyons in the western part of the Sierra. Yosemite Valley is the most outstanding of these canyons. Yosemite originally was cut by streams. Later, glaciers moved down the valley and eroded it further. The glaciers created Yosemite Valley's sheer granite cliffs.

The Cascade Mountains extend northward from the Sierra Nevada. Unlike other California ranges, the Cascades were formed by volcanoes. Lassen Peak (10,457 feet, or 3,187 meters) is an active volcano in the southern Cascades. Another famous peak, Mount Shasta (14,162 feet, or 4,317 meters), was once an active volcano.

The Basin and Range Region is part of a larger region that extends into Nevada, Oregon, and several other states. Much of the northern section is a lava plateau. Thousands of years ago, lava flowed out of great cracks in the earth's surface and flooded the area.

In southern California, much of the Basin and Range Region is a wasteland. The Mojave Desert covers a large area between the southern Sierra and the Colorado River. The Colorado Desert lies to the south. Irrigation has made several valleys in the region suitable for raising crops. These valleys include the fertile Imperial and Coachella valleys near the Mexican border. See COLORADO DESERT; IMPERIAL VALLEY; MOJAVE DESERT.

Death Valley is in the Basin and Range Region near the California-Nevada border. Part of Death Valley lies 282 feet (86 meters) below sea level and is the lowest point in North America. See DEATH VALLEY.

The Los Angeles Ranges are a group of small mountain ranges between Santa Barbara and San Diego counties. They are also called the Transverse Ranges because they extend generally in an east-west direction. Other ranges in California run generally north and south. The Los Angeles Ranges include the Santa Ynez, Santa Monica, San Gabriel, and San Bernardino mountains. Some geographers consider the San Jacinto and Santa Ana Mountains to be a part of this group. Most of the city of Los Angeles and its suburbs lie on a broad lowland between the San Gabriel Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. The hilly slopes of the Santa Monica Mountains extend into parts of the city.

The San Diego Ranges, also called the Peninsular Ranges, cover most of San Diego County at the southwestern tip of the state. They include the Agua Tibia, Laguna, and Vallecito mountains. This mountain system extends southward into the Mexican peninsula known as Baja (Lower) California.

Coastline. California's general coastline measures 840 miles (1,352 kilometers). California's tidal shoreline (including small bays and inlets) is 3,427 miles (5,515 kilometers) long. Along much of the coast, the Coast Ranges rise from the shore in steep cliffs and terraces. Southern California has many wide, sandy beaches. The California coast has two great natural harbors--San Francisco and San Diego bays. There are smaller natural harbors at Humboldt and Monterey bays.

Two groups of islands are located near the California coast. The small, rocky Farallon Islands rise from the ocean about 30 miles (48 kilometers) west of San Francisco. The eight Channel Islands lie scattered off the coast of southern California. Catalina Island, the best known of the Channel Islands, attracts many vacationers.

Rivers, waterfalls, and lakes. California's two longest rivers are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin. The Sacramento rises near Mount Shasta and flows south through the Central Valley. The San Joaquin rises in the Sierra Nevada and flows northwest through the Central Valley. The two rivers meet northeast of San Francisco and flow west into San Francisco Bay. Smaller rivers, such as the Feather and the Mokelumne, begin in the eastern mountains and flow west into the Sacramento or the San Joaquin.

The Colorado River forms the border between southern California and Arizona. It is an important source of water for Los Angeles and other cities of southern California. Water from the Colorado is also used to irrigate desert farmlands. Many rivers in southern California dry up or run underground during the dry season. Water may suddenly pour into the dry riverbeds during the rainy season and cause serious floods. In desert areas, most rivers have no outlets to other streams or to the sea. They flow above ground for a certain distance. Then they dry up or sink into the sand.

Yosemite National Park in California has several of the highest waterfalls in North America. Ribbon Falls (1,612 feet, or 491 meters) is the highest on the continent. Other high waterfalls in Yosemite include Bridalveil, Illilouette, Nevada, Silver Strand, Vernal, and Upper and Lower Yosemite.

California has about 8,000 lakes. Lake Tahoe, the deepest, averages 1,500 feet (427 meters) in depth. It lies in the Sierra on the California-Nevada border and reflects the surrounding mountain peaks. Most of the desert lakes east of the Sierra contain dissolved minerals that give the water a disagreeable taste. Potash, salt, and other minerals are taken from Owens Lake, Searles Lake, and other dry or partly dry lakes in this region. The Salton Sea is a large, shallow lake in southern California. It was formed between 1905 and 1907 by floodwaters from the Colorado River.

Plant and animal life. California's widely varied climate and terrain combine to produce a wide variety of plant and animal life. Some of the world's most unusual living things are found in the state. The coast redwood tree is the tallest living thing in the world, and the bristlecone pine tree is the oldest. The rare California condor is the largest bird in North America.

Forests cover about 40 per cent of California. Softwood trees make up most of the state's forests. These trees include cedars, firs, hemlocks, giant sequoias, pines, and redwoods. The most common hardwood trees are oaks.

Desert plants cover much of the southeastern section of the state. These plants include burroweeds, creosote bushes, indigo bushes, Joshua trees, and several kinds of cactuses. Desert wild flowers include desert evening primrose and sand verbena. Patches of chaparral (thick and often thorny shrubs and small trees) cover the foothills. In the foothills and valleys of northern California, a spectacular array of wild flowers blooms after the winter rainy season. These flowers include beardtongue, California poppy, evening primroses, fiddlenecks, and lupine. Fireweed and Washington lily bloom in the mountains.

Desert wildlife in California includes coyotes, lizards, and rattlesnakes. Beavers, bears, deer, foxes, minks, muskrats, rabbits, wildcats, wolverines, and a few mountain sheep roam the mountain and forest areas. Small herds of pronghorns and elk are found chiefly in the northern part of the state. California game birds include ducks, geese, grouse, mourning doves, quail, and turkey. Game fishes in the state's streams include black bass, salmon, striped bass, and trout. Abalones, clams, crabs, shrimps, lobsters, oysters, scallops, and other shellfishes are found along the California coast.

Climate. California has a great variety of climates. The southern coast has a mild climate. The climate along the coast of northern and central California is also mild, but this region is generally cooler than the southern coast. The climate of southeastern California is hot and dry.

January temperatures in California average 44 �F (7 �C). Boca, near Truckee, recorded the state's lowest temperature, -45 �F (-43 �C), on Jan. 20, 1937. July temperatures for the state average 75 �F (24 �C). The highest temperature ever recorded in the United States, 134 �F (57 �C), occurred at Greenland Ranch in Death Valley on July 10, 1913.

Most parts of California have only two well-marked seasons--a rainy season and a dry season. The rainy season lasts from October to April in the north, and from November to March or April in the south. Yearly precipitation (rain, snow, and other forms of moisture) is greatest along the northern coast, where it averages over 80 inches (200 centimeters). At San Francisco, the yearly average is about 22 inches (56 centimeters); at Los Angeles, 15 inches (38 centimeters); and at San Diego, 10 inches (25 centimeters). Some desert basins in the southeast receive almost no rain. From Oct. 3, 1912, to Nov. 8, 1914, Bagdad, in Death Valley, had no measurable precipitation. This 760-day rainless period set the United States record.

Snowfall is rare along the central and southern coast of California. But at Tamarack, in the Sierra Nevada, the yearly snowfall averages about 450 inches (1,140 centimeters).

CALIFORNIA/Economy

The value of California's total economic production is higher than that of any other state. If California were a separate country, it would rank among the 10 leading countries in total value of goods and services produced. California's economy benefits from the state's abundant resources and strategic location. Important resources include a mild climate, plentiful minerals and timber, and fertile soils. California's location on the West Coast makes it a leading area for international trade with Asia and Latin America.

Service industries provide the largest portion of California's gross state product--the total value of goods and services produced in a state annually. But goods-producing industries are also important for the state.

California ranks first among the states in agriculture and manufacturing. The Central Valley region is one of the world's great farming areas. Most of the goods manufactured in California are products of modern science and engineering. These products include airplanes, computers, electronic components, missiles, and scientific instruments. Private companies maintain several hundred laboratories in California for conducting research and testing new products. Most of these laboratories are located near large universities in the state. They are thus able to draw upon the ideas and skills of university biologists, chemists, engineers, and physicists.

Natural resources. California is unusually rich in minerals and timber. The state's soil and climate make it possible for farmers to grow an enormous variety of crops.

Soils. Many parts of California, especially in the Central Valley, have alluvial (valley) soils. These soils make the best farmland. The Imperial Valley in southern California has rich alluvial soils that produce outstanding crops when irrigated. Residual (upland) soils cover the mountain slopes. These soils support forests in areas that have enough rain. In many other places, they provide grazing land.

Minerals. California has important fields of petroleum and natural gas in the southern part of the Central Valley, near the southern coast, and in coastal waters off Long Beach and Santa Barbara. Natural gas also comes from fields around Sacramento. Valuable deposits of boron are found in the desert areas of southeastern California. Commercially important quantities of sand and gravel occur in most California counties. Gemstones, including agate, garnet, jade, rose quartz, and tourmaline, are found in various counties. Other nonmetallic minerals found in the state include clays, diatomite, feldspar, gypsum, peat, potash, pumice, salt, soda ash, stone, and talc.

California's tungsten deposits are among the nation's largest. They occur mainly in Inyo County. The state's chief gold deposits are found on the western slopes of the northern Sierra Nevada.

Forests cover about 40 percent of California. The state has two main timber regions, each named for an important tree in the region. The redwood region is a narrow belt that extends south along the coast from Oregon to San Luis Obispo County. The pine region covers the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada. It extends along the inland parts of the Klamath Mountains and the Coast Ranges as far south as Lake County. California's most valuable timber tree, the Douglas-fir, grows in the redwood region and the pine region. Other important timber trees that grow in the state include incense-cedar, red fir, white fir, Jeffrey pine, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and redwood.

California's most famous trees are its two types of sequoias, the redwood and the giant sequoia. The redwood is the state tree. Redwoods are the world's tallest living things. They grow near the coast in northern and central California. Giant sequoias, often called big trees, have larger trunks than redwoods but are not as tall. They grow on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Bristlecone pines in the White Mountains of eastern California are the world's oldest living things. Some are more than 4,000 years old.

California's forests are important for timber production and for recreation. But they are especially important for preserving the state's precious water supply. Water does not run off or evaporate so quickly in forest areas as it does in treeless regions. The logging industry and the government work to protect California's forests from fire, harmful insects, and tree diseases. Landowners also grow trees on tree farms so there will be a constant supply of timber to replace the trees that are cut.

Water is one of California's most important natural resources. The mountain areas, especially in the north, have plenty of water from rain and melted snow. But most of California's farms, industries, and homes are in the dry southern valleys. One of the state's greatest problems is to transport water from rainy areas to dry places where it is needed. Many aqueducts (channels and large pipelines) and canals have been built for that purpose. The Owens Valley Aqueduct brings water from the east side of the Sierra Nevada to Los Angeles. Water pumped from the Colorado River has long been supplied to farms and cities in southern California by several canals and aqueducts. The Central Valley Project brings water from the Sacramento Valley to the San Joaquin Valley. The water is used chiefly to irrigate the state's farms.

The state's largest water-transfer program is the California State Water Project. It includes dams and reservoirs to store water, and aqueducts to carry it from rivers in northern California to coastal cities and to southern California. Oroville Dam on the Feather River is the most important part of the project. Water from the Feather, Sacramento, and other northern rivers is sent southward in the long California Aqueduct. Some of the water is pumped over mountain ranges into the Los Angeles and San Diego areas.

Service industries account for the largest part of California's gross state product. Service industries are most important in the state's largest cities. California's service industries receive much income from the approximately 250 million tourists who visit the state each year.

Community, business, and personal services form California's leading service industry in terms of the gross state product. This industry employs more people than any other economic activity in the state. It consists of a variety of establishments, including doctors offices and private hospitals, law firms and engineering companies, hotels and entertainment companies, and repair shops. Two of the largest hospital chains in the United States, American Medical International and National Medical Enterprises, are based in the Los Angeles area. The Los Angeles area is also the home of such major entertainment companies as Walt Disney and MCA. Bechtel and Fluor, two of the world's leading engineering companies are headquartered in California.

Finance, insurance, and real estate form the second-ranking service industry in California. This industry is one of the fastest-growing economic activities in California. Real estate is the most important part of this industry. Property prices in the San Francisco and Los Angeles areas are among the highest in the nation. These two areas are also major United States financial centers. Several of the nation's largest banking companies are based in San Francisco and Los Angeles. San Diego and San Jose are also major U.S. financial centers.

Wholesale and retail trade rank third among California's service industries. The industry employs nearly a fourth of the people in California. Wholesale trade consists of buying goods from producers and selling these goods to other businesses. The wholesale trade of food products, medical supplies, motor vehicles, and petroleum products is important in California. Dole Food Company, based in Los Angeles, is a leading wholesale distributor of fruit. Bergen Brunswig, in nearby Orange, is a major distributor of medical supplies.

Retail trade involves selling goods directly to consumers. Leading types of retail businesses include automobile dealerships, department stores, food stores, and service stations. Safeway, a major food store chain, is based in California.

Government ranks fourth among California service industries in terms of the gross state product. Government services include public schools and hospitals, and military establishments. California has one of the world's largest public school systems, and its schools employ many people. Public universities in California operate many fine medical facilities and research laboratories. Edwards Air Force Base and several other Air Force bases lie within the state. California's other military bases include Camp Pendleton. The military bases are an especially important part of the economy of the San Diego area.

Transportation, communication, and utilities rank fifth among service industries. Several railroad companies are based in the San Francisco area. Many shipping and trucking companies also operate in California. The airports in San Francisco and Los Angeles are among the world's busiest. San Francisco is the home of the state's largest utility, Pacific Gas and Electric. More information about transportation and communication appears later in this section.

Manufacturing. Goods manufactured in California have a value added by manufacture of about $170 billion yearly. Value added by manufacture represents the increase in value of raw materials after they become finished products.

Electrical equipment is California's leading manufactured product in terms of value added by manufacture. Electronic components and military communication equipment are the leading types of electrical equipment made in the state. Electronic systems for aircraft and missiles are important products. Factories also make audiotape and videotape, lighting equipment, and telephone equipment. The Los Angeles and San Jose areas lead in the manufacture of electrical equipment. San Diego, San Francisco, and Orange County also produce large amounts of these goods.

Machinery ranks second among California's manufactured products. Computers are the main type of machinery made in the state. Silicon Valley, the leading computer-manufacturing region of the United States, is in the San Jose-Palo Alto area. Apple Computer and Hewlett-Packard are headquartered in this area.

Food processing is the third-ranking manufacturing activity. The main food products are baked goods, beverages, and canned fruits and vegetables. Large bakeries operate in many parts of the state. California produces some of the world's finest wines. Soft-drink bottling also provides much income. The San Jose and Stockton areas have numerous canneries. The processing of meats, milk, and sauces is also important in California.

Transportation equipment ranks fourth among California's manufactured products. Aircraft are the most important type of transportation equipment made in the state. Southern California is the leading aircraft assembly center in the United States. The region's warm, dry climate permits aircraft companies to fly and test their planes throughout the year. California's aircraft manufacturers include Lockheed Martin Corporation and Rockwell International Corporation. Other types of transportation equipment made in the state include missiles and motor vehicles.

Other manufactured products of California, in order of value added by manufacture, include scientific instruments, printed materials, and chemicals. Scientific instruments manufactured in the state include search and navigation equipment, measuring devices, and medical instruments. Print shops and newspaper publishers produce most of California's printed materials. Pharmaceuticals are the leading chemical product.

Agriculture. California leads the states in farm income. Fresno County is the nation's top-ranking county in agricultural production. California has about 80,000 farms. Many Californians call farms ranches, even if the farms raise crops rather than livestock.

The wide range of climate and of soil and water conditions enables California farmers to grow over 200 different crops. Several of these crops are grown commercially nowhere else in the nation. Most California farms are highly specialized. Many specialize in fruits or nuts. Almost all crop production takes place on farmlands that receive irrigation water.

Livestock and livestock products account for about 30 percent of California's agricultural income. Milk is the state's leading agricultural product. California leads the states in milk production. Beef cattle are another leading agricultural product in the state. Imperial County in the southeast corner of the state produces the most beef cattle. Many beef cattle also come from Fresno County and the counties that surround it. California leads all states in egg production. It also ranks among the leaders in raising sheep and turkeys. Other livestock products include hogs and horses.

Fruits and nuts account for about 25 percent of California's farm income. Grapes rank first in value, followed by almonds, strawberries, oranges, and walnuts. The grape crop includes table grapes, wine grapes, and raisin grapes. California produces almost all of the nation's almonds, apricots, dates, figs, kiwi fruit, nectarines, olives, pistachios, prunes, and walnuts. California also leads all states in the production of avocados, grapes, lemons, melons, peaches, plums, and strawberries. Only Florida produces more oranges.

Various regions of California specialize in fruits and nuts for which their soil and climate are best suited. For example, the San Joaquin Valley grows almonds, apricots, cantaloupes, grapes, kiwi fruit, nectarines, olives, oranges, peaches, pistachios, plums, and walnuts. The Sacramento Valley yields honeydew melons, prunes, and pears. Southern coastal counties lead in the production of avocados and lemons, and have a heavy production of oranges and strawberries. Farms in the southeastern areas of the state yield dates, grapefruits, and melons.

Vegetables earn about 20 percent of the state's farm income. Tomatoes and lettuce are the most important vegetable crops in the state. California ranks first in the production of both tomatoes and lettuce. The most important tomato-growing areas are the northern part of the San Joaquin Valley and the southern part of the Sacramento Valley. Lettuce is grown mainly in the southeastern corner of the state and in the regions that lie west of Fresno and southeast of Monterey. Broccoli and celery rank next in importance. California farmers also grow large amounts of asparagus, carrots, cauliflower, mushrooms, onions, and peppers.

Field crops provide about 15 percent of the state's agricultural income. Cotton is California's leading field crop. Only Texas grows more cotton. California's San Joaquin Valley is one of the world's major cotton-growing regions. Hay is the second most valuable field crop. Hay is grown throughout the state, but especially in areas that raise large numbers of cattle. Farmers grow rice in the Sacramento Valley. Other leading field crops include corn, sugar beets, and wheat.

Greenhouse and nursery products account for about 10 percent of the state's agricultural income. California leads all states in the production of cut flowers, potted flowering plants, ornamental shrubs and trees, and flower seeds and bulbs. It is an important producer of indoor foliage plants and seedlings. Most greenhouse and nursery products are grown in coastal areas from San Francisco to San Diego.

Mining. California ranks among the leading mining states. It produces a greater variety of mineral products than any other state.

Petroleum is California's most valuable mineral product. Most of the oil wells are in the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley and along the coast near Long Beach, Los Angeles, and Santa Barbara. Much natural gas comes from the petroleum-producing regions and from the Sacramento Valley.

California mines yield all of the boron that is produced in the United States. Boron comes from Inyo, Kern, and San Bernardino counties. It is used in boric acid, an antiseptic; and in borax, a cleaning agent. California is also the leading U.S. producer of diatomite, sand and gravel, sodium compounds, and tungsten. California is among the leading states in the production of gold, gypsum, magnesium compounds, molybdenum, perlite, potash, and pumice.

Fishing industry. California ranks among the leading states in commercial fishing. Its annual catch is valued at more than $160 million. Tuna is the most valuable fish caught in the state, and California has a larger tuna catch than any other state. Swordfish ranks second in value. Other commercially important fishes include halibut, herring, mackerel, rockfish, sablefish, salmon, shark, sole, and swordfish. The state's other catches include abalones, crabs, shrimp, and squid.

Electric power. About 40 percent of California's electric power comes from hydroelectric plants. About 30 percent comes from plants that burn natural gas, and about 25 percent comes from nuclear plants. Hoover, Davis, Glen Canyon, and Parker dams on the Colorado River supply power to California as well as to other Southwestern states. Power companies also generate power from many dams on rivers in northern California.

The Geysers Power Plant near Healdsburg is one of the nation's few commercial electric plants that is powered by geothermal steam--steam created by heat deep in the earth. In 1983, the world's largest solar power plant began operation near San Luis Obispo. It produces electric power from sunlight.

Transportation. California's first highway, El Camino Real, began as a path connecting the Spanish missions along the coast during the 1700's. The state's first major freeway, the Arroyo Seco Parkway (now Pasadena Freeway) between Pasadena and Los Angeles, was completed in 1940. Today, complicated freeway systems, with underpasses, overpasses, and cloverleafs, are a familiar symbol of California's urban areas.

San Francisco Bay has two of the most famous bridges in the world. These are the Golden Gate Bridge between San Francisco and Marin County and the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. Another important bridge, the Richmond-San Rafael Bridge, crosses a northern section of San Francisco Bay.

The international airports at Los Angeles and San Francisco are among the busiest in the United States. Other major airports include those in San Diego, San Jose, Oakland, Ontario, Orange County, Burbank, Sacramento, Long Beach, Fresno, and Palm Springs.

California's first railway, completed in 1856, ran 22 miles (35 kilometers) between Sacramento and Folsom. Today, 34 railroads provide freight service. Passenger trains serve about 40 of California's cities.

Southern California has major ports at Los Angeles (San Pedro), Long Beach, and San Diego. The San Francisco Bay area has several deepwater ports that ship millions of tons of goods each year. Besides San Francisco itself, these ports include Oakland, Redwood City, and Richmond.

Sacramento and Stockton are important inland ports. They handle shipments of agricultural and mineral products from the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Deepwater channels connect the Sacramento and Stockton ports with San Francisco Bay.

Communication. California's first newspaper, the Californian, began publication in Monterey in 1846. Today, the state has about 720 newspapers, including about 130 dailies. The leading newspapers in California include the Los Angeles Times, San Francisco Chronicle, San Jose Mercury News, The Sacramento Bee, The San Diego Union-Tribune, and The Register of Orange County. In addition, California publishers also produce about 1,200 periodicals.

In 1909, David Herrold began operating a radio station in connection with a radio school in San Jose. This occurred three years before the Congress of the United States established radio licensing requirements. In 1913, Herrold adopted the call letters SJN. The station's letters were changed to KQW in 1921, and to KCBS in 1949. California's first commercial radio station, KQL in Los Angeles, was licensed in 1921. KWG in Stockton was also licensed in 1921 and is still broadcasting. California's first commercial television station, KTLA in Los Angeles, began operations in 1947. Today, California has about 685 radio stations, 90 television stations, and 100 cable TV systems.

CALIFORNIA/Government

Constitution. California's first Constitution was adopted by the territorial government in 1849. The present Constitution was adopted in 1879. It has been amended (changed) over 350 times. A proposed amendment must be placed on the ballot in a regular statewide election. It may be proposed and placed on the ballot in any of three ways: (1) The Legislature may propose it by a two-thirds majority vote in each house. (2) A group of citizens may propose an amendment by submitting a petition. The petition must be signed by at least 8 percent as many people as voted for governor in the last election. (3) A constitutional convention, approved by two-thirds of the Legislature, may propose an amendment. To become law, an amendment must be approved by a majority of the voters.

Executive. California's governor is elected to a four-year term and can serve only two terms. Other top state officials include the lieutenant governor, secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, controller, insurance commissioner, and superintendent of public instruction. Voters also elect the five-member State Board of Equalization, which administers several important tax laws. All these officials are elected to four-year terms and may serve no more than two terms in the same office.

Legislature consists of a Senate of 40 members and an Assembly of 80 members. Each senator and each Assembly member represents one senatorial or Assembly district. Senators are elected to four-year terms and may serve only two terms. Members of the Assembly are elected to two-year terms and may serve no more than three terms.

Regular sessions of the Legislature run about two years. They begin on the first Monday in December of each even-numbered year and end on November 30 of the next even-numbered year. The governor may call special sessions at which the Legislature can deal only with subjects specified by the governor. There is no time limit on special sessions of the Legislature.

California citizens can pass laws directly, through their power of initiative. To do so, a proposed law must be favored by at least 5 percent of the people who voted for governor in the last election. This number of people must sign a petition in favor of a measure. Then they can put the measure on the ballot in the next state election. If the voters approve the measure, it becomes law. In a process called the referendum, Californians also have the right to challenge most kinds of laws passed by the Legislature. If 5 percent of the people who voted for governor in the most recent election challenge a new law, the law will not go into effect unless the people approve it in an election.

Courts. The highest court in California is the state Supreme Court. It has a chief justice and six associate justices. The state has six district courts of appeal. Justices of the Supreme Court and of the district courts of appeal are appointed by the governor to 12-year terms, subject to voter approval.

Each county has one superior court. The number of judges for each superior court is fixed by the Legislature. The voters elect superior court judges to six-year terms. Lower courts in California include municipal and justice courts. Judicial districts with populations of 40,000 or more have municipal courts. Districts with fewer than 40,000 people have justice courts.

Local government. California has about 470 incorporated cities. The state Constitution gives cities of 3,500 or more people the right to draw up and adopt their own charters. This right is often called home rule. About 80 California cities operate under local charters. Most California cities have council-manager governments. The others have mayor-council governments.

California has 58 counties. Most of the counties have a form of government specified by the laws of the state. This form of government includes a five-member board of supervisors and a number of elected executive officials. The elected officials include an assessor, auditor, clerk, coroner, district attorney, sheriff, superintendent of schools, and treasurer. The California constitution provides for county home rule. But only 11 counties have adopted charters under the home-rule law. Most of these counties chose a form of government similar to that of the general-law counties.

Revenue. Taxation provides about 60 percent of the state government's general revenue (income). Most of the rest of its revenue comes from federal government grants. The largest sources of state tax revenue are a personal income tax and a general sales tax. Other important tax revenue sources include taxes on corporate profits, motor fuels, and property, and licenses for businesses and motor vehicles.

Politics. Until 1959, California did not require political candidates to declare their party affiliation. For example, they could run as candidates of both the Democratic and Republican parties. This practice, known as cross-filing, kept many voters from being loyal to one particular party. As a result, political disagreements between various parts of the state tended to be stronger than disagreements among the parties themselves. Major political conflicts still occur between northern and southern California. In 1965, southern California gained political power when reapportionment of the Legislature gave the area more seats in the state Senate.

CALIFORNIA/History

Indian days. As many as 300,000 Indians lived in the fertile parts of the California region before white people came. There were many tribes, and they spoke different languages. Deserts and high mountains often separated the California Indian groups from each other and from the tribes farther east. The Hupa Indians lived in the far northwestern part of what is now California. The Maidu lived in the central section, and the Quechan lived in the south. The Pomo Indians occupied the territory that now makes up Lake, Mendocino, and Sonoma counties north of San Francisco. Other Indian groups in the California region included the Miwok, Modoc, and Mohave (Mojave) tribes.

Spanish and English exploration. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese explorer employed by Spain, was the first European to see the coast of what is now California. In 1542, Cabrillo sailed north from New Spain (present-day Mexico) along the Pacific Coast. He hoped to find rich cities and a water passage between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Cabrillo discovered San Diego Bay and stopped there before sailing farther north. Cabrillo died in 1543, but his men continued the voyage. Some historians believe that Cabrillo's expedition sailed along the entire California coast, as far north as present-day Oregon.

In 1579, Francis Drake, an English sea captain, followed a route along the California coast during his famous voyage around the world. Drake claimed the land for England and named it New Albion. The Spaniards then sent several exploring parties along the coast, partly because they feared they might lose California to the English. In 1602, Sebastian Vizcaino led one of these expeditions. He named many landmarks along the coast, and sent an enthusiastic report about California to the king of Spain. In the report, Vizcaino urged that Spain colonize California.

Spanish and Russian settlement. Beginning in 1697, the Spaniards established missions and other settlements in Baja (Lower) California, the Mexican peninsula south of present-day California. Captain Gaspar de Portola, governor of Baja California, led an expedition that established the first presidio (military fort) at San Diego in 1769. He also established one at Monterey in 1770. In 1776, a group of Spanish settlers arrived at the site of what is now San Francisco. The settlers founded a presidio and a mission there. Later, other groups of settlers sent by Spain established some pueblos (villages) near the coast.

However, Spain did not have a strong hold on the California region. Russia had fur-trading interests in Alaska, and wanted to search for furs farther south along the Pacific Coast. In 1812, the Russians established Fort Ross on the northern California coast. Russian activity in California was one reason for the Monroe Doctrine, proclaimed in 1823. In the Monroe Doctrine, the United States declared that North and South America should be considered closed to European colonization. In 1824, Russia agreed to limit its settlements to Alaska. However, the Russians did not actually leave the California region until the early 1840's.

The California missions. Franciscan friars of the Roman Catholic Church played an important part in the Spanish settlement of California. In 1769, during the Portola expedition, Father Junipero Serra established the first California mission. This mission was San Diego de Alcala, originally established in what is now San Diego. By 1823, the Franciscans had built a chain of 21 missions. Each mission was about a day's walk from the next. The friars converted many Indians to Christianity. They taught the Indians farming, weaving, and other skills. But many Indians who lived at the missions were forced to work long hours. Many were also exposed to new diseases. Some became ill and died.

Many people in California and Mexico wanted the missions broken up. In the early 1830's, the government began selling mission land to private citizens. By 1846, almost all the mission property had been sold. During this period, the government gave or sold many large estates, called ranchos, to private landowners, called rancheros. Some rancheros became wealthy by raising cattle for hides and tallow (fat used in making candles, soap, and other products).

Mexican rule. California became a province of Mexico in 1822, after Mexico won its independence from Spain. The province set up its own legislature and established a military force. But, beginning in 1825, Mexico sent a series of governors to California. Many Californians rebelled against having their affairs dictated by these outsiders. Manuel Victoria, who became governor in 1831, ruled with a strong hand and was especially resented by the Californians. A group led by Pio Pico and others clashed with Mexican government troops in 1831. This fighting was not severe. But the continuing opposition forced Victoria to give up the governorship and return to Mexico City. After that, Mexico's control over the region remained weak.

American settlement. The Otter, the first American sailing vessel to reach the coast from the East, appeared in California waters in 1796. After that, American skippers made many trading trips to harbors along the coast of California.

The first American explorer to reach California by land was Jedediah Strong Smith, a trapper who crossed the southwestern deserts in 1826. Other trappers and explorers followed Smith. They included Kit Carson, Joseph Reddeford Walker, and Ewing Young.

In 1841, the first organized group of American settlers came to California by land. These settlers were led by John Bidwell, a schoolteacher, and John Bartleson, a wagon master and land speculator. Soon other overland pioneers arrived to make their homes in the Mexican territory. They drove long wagon trains through the mountain passes. The new settlers wanted California to become a part of the United States. The United States offered to buy the land from Mexico, but Mexico refused to sell.

Mexico surrenders. Between 1844 and 1846, the military explorer John C. Fremont led two surveying parties into California. The Mexicans did not trust Fremont because his parties were made up of U.S. soldiers. In March 1846, the Mexicans ordered Fremont to withdraw his troops, who were camped near Monterey. Instead, Fremont raised the U.S. flag over Hawk's Peak, about 25 miles (40 kilometers) from Monterey. He began to build a fort there. Fighting was avoided when Fremont withdrew to the north under cover of darkness. On May 13, 1846, the United States and Mexico went to war (see MEXICAN WAR).

In June 1846, without knowing that war had been declared, a band of American settlers took over Sonoma, Mexico's headquarters in northern California. The group was led by frontiersman Ezekiel Merritt. After capturing the fort, the settlers unfurled a homemade flag bearing a star, a grizzly bear, and the words California Republic. This action became known as the Bear Flag Revolt.

The real conquest of California was carried out by United States soldiers, sailors, and marines. They were led by Fremont, Commodore Robert F. Stockton, and General Stephen W. Kearny. After the United States won the Mexican War in 1848, Mexico surrendered its claim to California in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. California then became part of the United States.

The gold rush. In 1848, just before the United States and Mexico signed the peace treaty, gold was discovered in California. John A. Sutter, a pioneer trader, had received a large land grant in the Sacramento Valley in 1839. He hired James W. Marshall, a carpenter, to help build a sawmill on the American River. There, at Sutter's Mill, Marshall found the first gold nuggets. News of his discovery spread, and thousands of persons rushed to establish claims. These "Forty-Niners," as they were called, poured in from all parts of the world. Between early 1848 and the end of 1849, California's population increased from about 15,000 to more than 100,000. The free spending by the miners who found gold made such communities as San Francisco and Sacramento into flourishing towns. Some miners who were not so lucky in the gold fields became farmers and ranchers in the Central Valley. See FORTY-NINERS; GOLD RUSH.

Early statehood. California became the 31st state on Sept. 9, 1850. Peter H. Burnett, a Democrat, was the first state governor. Thousands of settlers went west after the Civil War ended in 1865. They sought the high wages paid in California, and a chance to buy land at low prices. In 1869, the first transcontinental railroad system linked Sacramento with the Eastern United States. Part of this system, the Central Pacific Railroad, later became part of the Southern Pacific, owned by Charles Crocker, Mark Hopkins, Collis P. Huntington, and Leland Stanford. These men were known as California's "Big Four." They brought many Chinese laborers to California in the 1860's to work on the railroads.

By 1870, California's population had risen to about 560,000. During the next 10 years, a depression caused widespread unemployment and bank failures. Many unemployed workers blamed their troubles on Chinese laborers, who were willing to work for low wages. Anti-Chinese riots took place in Los Angeles in 1871 and in San Francisco in 1877. During the 1880's, a great publicity campaign brought thousands of people to California. So many came to southern California in 1887 that a land boom occurred. Agriculture and industry flourished as the population increased.

In 1906, a terrible earthquake in San Francisco destroyed about 28,000 buildings and killed more than 3,000 people. However, the city was soon rebuilt.

Progress as a state. During the early 1900's, California grew rapidly in population and in the development of natural resources. Farming increased greatly after irrigation turned many desert areas into fertile land. Development of oil and natural gas was accompanied by the growth of new industries. Other minerals besides gold were found, and mining became more important. By 1910, Hollywood had become the motion-picture capital of the world. In 1910, Californians elected Hiram W. Johnson as governor. Two years later, Johnson joined Theodore Roosevelt in a revolt against the Republican Party. Johnson ran for Vice President of the United States under Roosevelt in 1912 on the unsuccessful Progressive Party ticket.

In 1914, the completion of the Panama Canal shortened the important sea route between California and the East. To show the value of the canal to California, the state sponsored the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco in 1915 and the Panama-California Exposition in San Diego in 1915 and 1916.

After the United States entered World War I in 1917, shipyards, rubber plants, and other factories were established in California. After the war ended in 1918, interest turned to control of the Colorado River. This mighty river had caused serious flood damage for many years. Between 1905 and 1907, floodwaters from the Colorado had even formed the 450-square-mile (1,165-square-kilometer) Salton Sea in southeastern California. In 1928, Congress authorized a huge dam at Boulder Canyon on the Arizona-Nevada border. The dam was completed in 1936. It controls floods and provides water for irrigation and power in southern California and neighboring states (see HOOVER DAM).

During the Great Depression of the 1930's, hundreds of people without homes or jobs drifted into California. The state passed laws to close its borders to poor people. But this legislation was later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States.

In 1935 and 1936, the California-Pacific International Exposition was held in San Diego. This fair honored the Pacific Ocean and the countries that border it. The Golden Gate International Exposition was held in 1939 and 1940 on Treasure Island in San Francisco Bay. The Golden Gate Bridge across the entrance to the bay had been completed in 1937.

The mid-1900's. During World War II (1939-1945), California produced airplanes, ships, and weapons. The state became the nation's aircraft center. After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941, the government moved thousands of Japanese-Americans from California to detention camps (see WORLD WAR II [On the home front]). In 1945, representatives of 50 nations approved the United Nations Charter at the San Francisco Conference.

Many people who had come to California as members of the armed forces or to work in defense plants settled there after the war. The population soared. Farm centers became metropolitan areas with a variety of industries. Rows of ranch-style houses appeared on former orchards and pastures. New freeways linked smaller cities with Los Angeles and San Francisco.

The population growth boosted California's economy, but it also created problems. The state had to provide more schools and highways. Smog became a serious problem in Los Angeles and other cities as more automobiles and industries discharged fumes and smoke.

Controlling and distributing water resources remained California's biggest problem during the 1960's. Most of the state's rain and snow falls in the northern mountains. But most of California's people live in southern California, where rainfall does not supply enough water. In the 1960's and early 1970's, the state built a system of canals, dams, reservoirs, and power and pumping plants to store and distribute northern California's excess water to the drier areas.

Like many other states, California had racial problems during the 1960's. In 1965, rioting broke out in Watts, a black section of Los Angeles. It resulted in the deaths of 34 people and millions of dollars of damage. The California Legislature tried to reduce the complaints of minority groups by providing increased education, employment, and housing.

During the 1960's, California greatly expanded its educational system. In 1940, the University of California had three campuses. By 1969, it had nine major campuses. Between 1940 and 1969, the number of other state universities and colleges also increased rapidly. California's schools became the center of various student movements. The nation's first major college demonstration, organized by the Free Speech Movement, occurred in 1964 at the University of California in Berkeley.

Richard M. Nixon, born in Yorba Linda, was elected President of the United States in 1968 and was reelected in 1972. He resigned from the office in 1974 because of his involvement in the Watergate political scandal.

Motion-picture stars gained popularity with California voters in the 1960's. George L. Murphy won election to the U.S. Senate in 1964, and Ronald Reagan became governor in 1967. Reagan was elected President of the United States in 1980 and was reelected in 1984.

Recent developments. In the early 1970's, sharp cuts in federal military spending in California caused a rise in unemployment. In 1978, California voters approved a referendum--known as Proposition 13--that called for a $7-billion reduction in state property taxes. School districts and local government suffered revenue losses.

By the early 1980's, however, California's economy was again thriving, and education and other services benefited from the state's increased revenues. New federal military contracts helped bring prosperity to California's aerospace industry. In addition, Santa Clara County became a world leader in the production of high-technology electronic equipment. It earned the name Silicon Valley. The breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 and other developments again led to a decrease of federal military spending in California. These events and other factors helped cause a recession in the state in the early 1990's. But growth of service industries and other economic activities improved the economy.

On Oct. 17, 1989, a strong earthquake struck the San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose area. It caused 63 deaths and extensive property damage. Most of the deaths were caused by the collapse of a section of the Nimitz Freeway in Oakland. Another extremely destructive earthquake struck Los Angeles in January 1994. It caused 57 deaths and much property damage.

Brush fires are a problem in parts of California. In 1991, a major one struck Oakland and surrounding areas. It caused 25 deaths and destroyed much property. In 1993, a series of brush fires near Los Angeles killed 4 people and caused heavy property damage.

California's population has grown rapidly since the 1970's, partly because of the large numbers of immigrants from Europe, Asia, and especially Central America and Mexico. In 1986, California voters approved a referendum to make English the state's official language. In 1994, the voters passed a referendum--known as Proposition 187--to prohibit illegal immigrants from receiving public education, free nonemergency medical care, and other social services. However, a number of lawsuits were filed, blocking the implementation of Proposition 187.

Contributor: David W. Eakins, Ph.D., Emeritus Prof. of History, San Jose State Univ.

Tom L. McKnight, Ph.D., Prof. of Geography, Univ. of California, Los Angeles.

CALIFORNIA/Study aids

Questions

Where is the lowest point in the United States?

What is California's oldest amusement park?

Who was the first European to see California?

What is California's most valuable crop?

During what period were Franciscan missions built in California?

What are the two major river systems in the Central Valley of California?

How did the United States obtain California?

Why is southern California a good location for aircraft companies?

What California trees are the world's oldest living things?

Who were California's "Big Four"?

Additional resources

Level I

Fradin, Dennis B. California. Childrens Pr., 1992.

Ketchum, Liza. The Gold Rush. Little, Brown, 1996.

Margolin, Malcolm, and Montijo, Yolanda, eds. Native Ways: California Indian Stories and Memories. Heyday, 1996.

Pelta, Kathy. California. Lerner, 1993.

Stein, R. Conrad. California. 1988. Reprint. Childrens Pr., 1996. The California Gold Rush. 1995.

Level II

Clifton, Carr. Wild and Scenic California. BrownTrout Pubs., 1995. A book of photographs.

Grodin, Joseph R., and others. The California State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Greenwood, 1993.

Hart, James D. A Companion to California. Rev. ed. Univ. of Calif. Pr., 1987.

Lavender, David S. California. 1972. Reprint. Univ. of Neb. Pr., 1987.

Lawson, Greg, and Pryde, P. R. Oh ... California. First Choice, 1990. A book of photographs from the 1800's and early 1900's.

Phillips, George H. Indians and Intruders in Central California, 1769-1849. Univ. of Okla. Pr., 1993.

Starr, Kevin. Material Dreams: Southern California Through the 1920's. Oxford, 1990.

Page last updated 07/30/00