Caliphate of 'Umar II
'Umar II ruled after Suleiman I, and is known to history as the "Good Umar". He instituted many reforms in the empire which had a positive effect, but were often disapproved of by officials because they decreased revenue while increasing expenditures.

For example, the public cursing of Ali was ended, and raids against peaceful nations were discouraged. The Dhimmi's were excluded from taxation, and a greater equalisation of rates of pay was established.

Muslim landowners were only required to pay the 'ushr, but after 719 (100 A.H. in the Muslim calendar), no Arab was allowed to own land. They could however rent it and then pay the kharaj on it. Pensions were also created for the wives and children of fallen warriors.

In 720, 'Umar II died at the age of 59, and Sulaiman's brother, Yazid II, became caliph. He was followed in 724 by Hisham, nicknamed 'the penny pincher'.

Caliphate of Hisham (724-743)
: Hisham was the first caliph to employ his own bodyguard, have a throne, and his own executioner. He also had the first vizier and adopted the Sassanian shah garments. Many of 'Umar II's reforms were rescinded under his administration, and all land assessed as kharaj was taxed at the kharaj rate, irrespective of the race or religion of it's owner. Existing 'ushr land continued to pay only the 'ushr, but was not permitted to be added onto. His nickanme was given him because he was forced to severely restrict expenditures due to the financial situation created by 'Umar II's reforms.

Hisham faced a number of problems during his caliphate:

• Financial problems: Hisham became unpopular because he was considered miserly; 'Umar II's reforms had depleted the revenue to the state and Hisham was forced to tighten the purse strings. This angered many and provoked violence sometimes, as in the Berber uprising. Aggravating the situation was his attempt to address it with the musadarah policy, whereby an official who incurred the caliph's wrath could immediately be charged with embezzlement, subject to arbitrary scrutiny and forced to confess an amount of money under torture. He was then fined or had to provide the names of merchants where he had spent the money so it could be confiscated. The policy did raise revenue, but was unpopular. Personal degradation of a muslim official was inconsistent with the standards of the pious opposition, and with the personal ideals of the free tribesmen.
• Berber Uprising (739-742): Although the uprising was quelled at the "Battle of the Nobles", it involved the death of many muslim leaders of distinguished lineage and the unrest never really subsided.
• Kufa Uprising (740): The empire being based in Syria, it was Syrian garrisons which were the dominant military unit and areas of the empire, particularly Iraq, harbored deep resentment towards the Syrians. In 740 in Kufa, Husain's grandson, Zaid, led an abortive uprising. Like the Berber uprising, it was quelled militarily but this generated further anti-Hisham and anti-Syrian feelings.
• Shi'ism: As under most caliphates, Shi'ism was a violent opposition . But now it was disunited, with three principle factions:
  1. One that supported the descendants of Ali and Fatima
  2. One that supported the descendants of Ali and Khawala, a Hanafite woman
  3. One that supported the descendants of Ali's brother, Jafar
  In 737, several Shi'ite leaders were caught and executed. Hisham tried to culitvate the religious leadership and institute proceedings against heresy to create the illusion that the Omayyads were the defenders of Islam and orthodoxy.
• Defeat at Gaul (732): Although the war against the Byzantines had been moderately successful up to this point, this crushing defeat furthered the anti-Hisham sentiments in the empire.

Caliphate of Walid II
After Hisham's death, Walid II, son of Yazid II, became caliph. He was notoriously careless of religion and neglected many of his duties. He was partial to the Qays faction, and thus hated by the Kalb. Yazid III, son of Walid I, with the backing of the Marwanid clain, seized Damascus in a coup and in April of 744, Walid II was murdered near Palmyra.

Caliphate of Yazid III
Yazid III declared himself caliph, but was not recognized by the rest of the empire.

Caliphate of Marwan II
Marwan was governor of Armenia when Yazid III had Walid II killed. He was also the grandson of Marwan I and when Yazid III claimed the caliphate, Marwan marched an army to establish Walid II's son as caliph. Yazid III died, and his brother, Ibrahim, declared himself caliph. Only southern Syria recognized him, however, and when Marwan arrived to find Walid II's son murdered, he seized the throne for himself. Marwan II distinguished himself as an able soldier during several campaigns against the Byzantines, and could probably have saved the empire if he had arrived sooner. His military power was largely based on Qays military alliances.

Like other caliphs before him, Marwan II faced a number of problems during his reign:

• Khariji uprisings: There was one in Southern Arabia, another in Mesopotamia. Although both seemed close to success, Marwan's military improvements in the Islamic army gave him the edge needed to crush the unorganized rebels.
• Shi'i revolts: These were led by Abd-Allah Ibn-Mu'awiyah, a descendant of Abu Talib, and thus a member of the house of Hashim. He revolted first with Qahtan help in Kufa, and then fled to the Iranian highlands.
• tribal factions and jealousies: In Khurasan, northeast of the Iranian deserts, Qahtan were actively discontent witht he privileges the Marwani (Omayyad) dynasty still tried to impose on itself. A large number of Mawali occupied this province.

1. His mother was a Kurdish slave
2. He transferred the government to Carrhae, in Mesopotamia, which angered Syria
3. The Hisham family treated him as an usurper
4. His support of the Qays alienated the Kalb